sir Isaac newton

 

sir Isaac newton

             Sir Isaac Newton is regarded as one of the greatest scientists who ever lived. His breakthrough idea about motion influenced every area of physics, allowing other great thinkers to stand on his shoulders. Yet, Newton was also a man at odds with his public perception – a secret alchemist and heretic who risked his life to write about the failings of the Anglican church. In this week’s Biographics, we uncover the real Isaac Newton. Formative YearsIsaac Newton was born on January 4th, 1643 in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a small town in the county of Lincolnshire, England. He was a premature baby who was so small that his mother said that he would have fit inside a quart mug with room to spare. The doctor who delivered him didn’t think that he’d survive his first week. Newton’s father, who was also named Isaac, had died three months before the child was born. He had been a rather successful farmer and his wife, Hannah, was left a financially comfortable widow. For the next three years, she raised young Isaac alone. Then, in 1646, she remarried, becoming Mrs.Barnabas Smith. The relationship between young Isaac and his stepfather was a difficult one, and the boy spent a lot of his time in the care of his grandmother. Hannah and Barnabas went on to have three children together – Benjamin, Mary, and Hannah. Isaac seems to have gotten on well with his half-siblings, though his relationship with his mother was tempestuous. When he was 19, Isaac wrote a list of sins for which he wanted to repent. One of them was threatening to burn down the family home with his mother and stepfather inside it! Isaac attended a village school sporadically but didn’t begin his formal schooling until the age of 12, when he enrolled at the King’sSchool in Grantham, England. Initially, he showed little interest in his studies and performed poorly in all subjects. However, soon enough he had an abrupt attitude change and decided to apply himself more seriously. When he was 17, Isaac’s stepfather died. His mother, looking to her oldest son’spotential as the family breadwinner, attempted to make a farmer out of him. But Isaac had no intention of becoming a farmer. In fact, he detested the very thought of spending his life out in the fields. Fortunately, after a few months, the master at King’s School interceded on Isaac’s behalf, convincing Hannah that he was best suited back with them. Isaac had been bullied by another student and chose to respond by outdoing the bully and his cronies academically. Isaac achieved outstanding academic results. He was the top-performing student of 1660, displaying an amazing aptitude for all subjects. A Trinity Mann June of 1661, Isaac began studying at Trinity College at Cambridge University. To pay for his studies, he worked outside of his study hours, serving meals, and running errands for his professors. The 18-year-old had entered Trinity intending to become a minister of the Church of England. However, some time within that first year changed direction. It is unclear why he decided not to pursue a life in the church, but from his later writings, it is clear that he was forming beliefs about god that were at odds with the doctrine of the Anglican church. The foundation of the education that Newton was receiving at Trinity College was based on the teaching of Aristotle. He was fascinated with these ideas but objected that many of the concepts were not based on evidence, but merely on the great philosopher’sassumptions and ideas. Newton became increasingly focused on the natural sciences and philosophy. He studied the works of such original thinkers as Descartes, Kepler, and Galileo. Because the establishment had not accepted the scientific findings of these men, Isaac did a lot of his study outside of the classroom. Newton absorbed scientific ideas from wherever he could get them. So long as he was able to test and prove them, he would take them on board and then debate them with his professors and other students. In 1662, Newton filled the pages of a notebook with a list of 45 things he wanted to study. They all came under the general heading of physics. But, unlike everyone else who had gone before him, Newton didn’t just pose questions – he set out to answer them. He began to devise experiments to find the answers he was looking for. Newton the MathematicianThe following year, however, Newton’s focus was pulled away from his list of physics-based questions. He became fascinated with the works of Rene Descartes, and this led him to an in-depth study of mathematics. Descartes applied the Arabic discipline algebra to geometry and called it algebraic geometry. Newton graduated from Trinity College in August of 1665. He did not receive the stellar grades that his talents merited, which was probably because he spent so much time on his personal studies. At this time, all of Europe was being ravaged by the bubonic plague. In London, one in four people died. Colleges were closed down in an attempt to control the spread of the disease. This postponed Newton’s continuing formal education, but he made great use of the time. For the next two years, Isaac focused on his personal studies from the family home. His main areas of study were calculus, lunar motion, and optics. He now had the time to mull over all the knowledge that he had accumulated at Cambridge and relate them to the world around him. This led him to more questions, three of the most fundamental of which were . . . Why do things always fall down? Why doesn’t the moon fall to the earth? Why do planets stay in orbit? Newton was convinced that mathematics could lead him to answer these questions. He developed a new form of maths which he called fluxions, the basis of modern-day calculus. He later wrote about this time in his life. . . At this time, I was in the prime of my ageof invention and minded mathematics and philosophy more than any time since. Newton returned to Cambridge in the spring of 1667. He had developed into a rather peculiar 23-year-old. A loner with no friends, he was content to spend hours on end with his thoughts. Many dismissed him as an absent-minded recluse. None of his contemporaries had any idea that he was grappling with an understanding of planetary motion. He took up a position as a fellow of the college and held several prestigious positions over the coming years. In 1669, Isaac published his first work, which he called Analysis by Infinite Series. It was an investigation of cubic equations and curves in three dimensions and was well received in the wider scientific community. As a fellow of Cambridge, Newton was expected to become an ordained priest in the Anglican church. But his opposition to the belief in the Trinity doctrine held him back. When he was appointed as Lucasian professor of mathematics, though, college officials pressed for his ordains. He managed to put off the requirement and received the promotion. Newton the Lucasian ProfessorNow aged 27, Newton held one of the most prestigious positions in the mathematical world. As a Lucasian professor, he was required to lecture on mathematics and place copies of his notes in the University library, a requirement which he rarely complied with. He began lecturing on the subject of optics, with his notes forming the basis of his book, Opticks. His work on optics led Newton to focus on improving the working of the refracting telescope. He was grappling with the problem of how to get the different colors of light to come into focus at the same spot on the lens. He failed to solve this issue and so turned his attention to the reflecting telescope. In 1668, Newton produced the first working reflective telescope, building on the work of Scottish mathematician James Gregory. He used his telescope to look into the night sky, where he was able to observe the four moons of the planet Jupiter. Newton the Royal Society MemberIn 1671, Newton was nominated as a member of the British Royal Society. To support his proposed candidacy, he wrote a letter on the nature of light, which was read at the Society’s next meeting. It caused mixed reactions, with some praising his observation and others vehemently opposed to them. Newton was admitted to the Royal Society in1672, marking his entry into the legitimate scientific community. Up until then, he had done his work in isolation. But now he was rubbing shoulders with the most prominent scientists in the world. Isaac immediately came to loggerheads with one of the most respected members of the Royal Society. Robert Hooke was the Curator of Experiments for the Society. Unlike the quiet, reserved Newton, Hooke was loud and outgoing. He objected to Newton’s writings on the nature of light, which challenged the conventional wisdom. Over a period of four years, Hooke wrote published objections to Newton’s ideas, each of which was countered by Isaac. Newton hated the constant quarreling that was part and parcel of being a member of the Royal Society and, after fifteen months, he quit the organization. The secretary of the Society, Henry Oldenburg, pleaded with him to stay, assuring him that he was greatly respected. But Newton stayed away from society for the next two years. Clashing with the ChurchBy 1675, Newton’s refusal to take the priesthood was becoming a serious problem. It was becoming a talking point which was proving embarrassing to the College. With it looking as if he would lose his position, he turned to his mentor and the former Lucasian Professor, Isaac Barrow, for help. Barrow suggested that he write to King Charles and request a special dispensation allowing him to continue in his position without entering the priesthood. Newton was generally dissatisfied with the way that the Anglican church had evolved. It had retained many of the trappings of the Catholic Church which he objected to. But his biggest problem was with the doctrine of the Trinity. He could not accept that God and Jesus were one. In March 1675, Newton travel to London to file for a special dispensation. To his relief and surprise, it was granted without question. In fact, the King removed the priesthood requirement for all future Lucasian professorships. In November 1680, a bright comet appeared in the skies over England. It was tracked and commented on by the leading scientists, including Newton and a new member of the Royal Society named Edmond Halley. In 1684, the two men got together to discuss the shape of the orbit of planets. Halley was impressed with Newton’s ideas and persuaded him to present his works in written form to the Royal Society. Newton’s Magnum OpusFor the next 18 months, Newton was consumed with the writing of this masterwork, which he called Principia Mathematica. He was so absorbed with it that he often neglected to eat or sleep. In this three-volume work, he brought together the result of twenty years of study, observation, and thinking about nature. He began by laying out a series of definitions that underpinned his thoughts on the natural world. These definitions for such things as inertia, matter, mass, and momentum, still stand today. With his basis established, he then laid out his 3 laws of motion – the law of inertia, the law of acceleration, and the law of action and reaction. These, in turn, led to his most groundbreaking idea – the law of universal gravitation. The law of gravitation flew in the face of Aristotle's 2,000-year-old teaching that the Earth operates under one set of rules, while the sun, moon, planets, and stars follow different rules. According to Newton, there was one law that governed the motion of everywhen in the universe. The Principia was presented to the Royal Society in 1686. Robert Hooke immediately accused Newton of plagiarizing his ideas. Despite this, the volume was well-received. When it was published a year later, it became an instant masterpiece. The law of universal gravitation was accepted as the breakthrough explaining everything from the motion of planets to the tides ofthe sea. Despite, the popular reaction to the Principia, Newton’s ideas would not be taught in university for another fifty years. Newton the AlchemistWhile a student at Cambridge, Newton had first come into contact with alchemy. This pseudo-science had its origins in the works of Aristotle who taught that all matter was composed of four basic elements – earth, air, fire, and water. By adjusting the proportions of any of these components, it was believed, one thing could be turned into another. Aristotle also taught that each of the elements was connected to human emotion or characteristic. Newton was fascinated with these concepts, even though they were completely at odds with the rational, evidence-based way that he synthesized his scientific ideas. From that time onwards, he led a sort of double-life where he portrayed himself as the ultimate logical thinker while pursuing unorthodox chemist experiments away from prying eyes. At the same time, he developed several religious views that were decidedly outside the mainstream. Starting in 1669, Newton built up an extensive library of alchemy related books. He was obsessed with finding universal truth and saw alchemy as a means of doing so. He wrote thousands of words of notes on the subject and conducted hundreds of experiments. His information was eventually condensed into a book which he called Clavis. Newton the TheologianNewton had a deep and abiding interest in religion. Over the course of his life, he wrote more than a million words on the subject, but very few of them were published during his lifetime. Through his studies of the Hebrew language and careful study of the scriptures, he became convinced that modern Christianity was not following the model set by Jesus. Newton fundamentally disagreed with the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. At the time this was an act of heresy punishable by imprisonment or worse. By writing about it, even if his work was unpublished, he was putting his life at risk. Two important works of scriptural interpretation that were published in the century after his death was Observationsthe prophecies lies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John and The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended. Newton was fascinated with Solomon’s Temple, believing that the building was a paradigm for the universe and a pattern for the future of the human race. It was his belief that the architecture ofthe temple held secrets to uncovering the mysteries of the universe and revealed future bible prophecy. The front gave predictions about the end of the Catholic Church, the return of Chris,t and the Day of Judgment. In 1687, Newton became involved in a conflict between King James II and Cambridge university. A Benedictine monk requested receipt of a master's degree without having to swear oath and allegiance to the Anglican Church. The monk appealed to the king who issued a mandate stating that the university must admit the man without requiring the oath. Newton came out on behalf of the universitysandandd was soon appointed to represent them at a commission hearing at Westminster. His arguments proved persuasive and the monks were not admitted to the university. Newton the Public ServantIn January 1689, Newton was elected to public office when he became the University’srepresentativen the Convention Parliament. With his new position came a personality change. He transformed from an introverted, retiring academic to a friendlier, more outgoing public servant. In 1690, Newton suffered a period of depressionsandandd mental exhaustion, apparently compounded by a dose of influenza. He recovered to spend the 1690’sfocuon onn the moon’s orbit. His work required that he obtain astronomical readings from the first Astronomer Royal, John Flamstead. But the two men did not get on. They quarreled from the start, with the relationship eventually completely breaking down. This meant that Newton was unable to complete his investigation into the lunar cycles. In 1696, Newton sought a higher paying job in the public service. He was awarded the position of Warden of theRoyal Mint. The job required a move to London, which is where he lived until his death. He oversaw the re-coining of old silver and gold coins. He also standardized the weight and composition of coins so that he was able to bring to British coinage a much greater degree of accuracy than was ever known before. Three years into the job he was promoted to toaster of the Mint. The job, which he held until his death paid around fifteen hundred pounds a year, which was a huge amount for the times. In 1703, Newton, now the most famous scientists in the land, ascended to the presidency of the Royal Society. He held the position until his death. In 1705, he received a knighthood from QueenAnne. However, his acclaim among the scientific community was strained with an ongoing dispute with German polymath Gottfried Leibniz over which of them should get the credit for the invention of calculus. Although Newton was the first to develop the basic concepts of calculus, Leibniz published his work on calculus before Newton. The issue divided the leading scientists ofthe time. The Final YearsDuring the last two decades of his life, Newton spent a great deal of time revising his most famous work, Principia Mathematica. A second edition was published in 1713, with a third and final version appearing in 1726. He also indulged his passion for Biblicalstudy, spending days on end compiling notes on the history of the ancient Hebrews. Newton was keen to ensure that his legacy lived on beyond his physical years. He sat for several portraits and sculptures were cast of him. Still, he professed an outward appearance of humility, making the followings statement . . .I do not know what I may appear to the world,; but to myself,f I seem to have been only like aa boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. The last years of Newton’s life were spent with his niece, Catherine Barton Conduit,t, and her husband. In his seventies, he began to suffer from breathing problems, prompting a move from London to Kensington, where the air was fresher. In 1725, at the age of 82, he was confined to his bed with severe lung problems. Coughing fits were constant and he suffered from an uncontrolled bladder. By early 1727, he seemed to have recovered somewhat. He felt good enough to preside over the RoyalSociety meeting on February 28th. But the effort was too much for him, upon his return home, he was again confined to his bed. In early March, his doctors diagnosed a kidney stone. His condition steadily worsened throughout that month and he passed away in the early hours of March 31st, 1727. Newton was awarded the great honor of being buried at Westminster Abbey. His funeral service was the most extravagant ever held in England for a natural philosopher.